sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
 135            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
 136        ),
 137        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 138        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
 139        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
 140        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 143        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 144        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 147        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 148        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 149        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 152        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 153        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 154        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 155        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 156        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 157        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 158        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 161        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 162        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 163        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 164        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 165        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 166        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 167        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 169        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 170        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 171        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 172        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 173        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 176        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
 179        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
 180        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 182        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 184        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 185        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 187            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 188        ),
 189        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 191        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 193        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 194        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 195        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 196        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 197        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 198        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 199        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 200        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 202        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 203        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 205        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 206        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 209        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 210        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 211        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 212        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 213        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 214        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 215        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 216        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 217        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 218        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 219        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 220        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 221        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 222        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 223        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 224        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 225    }
 226
 227    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 228    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 229    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 230    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 231
 232    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 233    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 234    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 235
 236    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 237    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 238
 239    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 240    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 241
 242    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 243    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 244
 245    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 246    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 247
 248    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 249    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 250
 251    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 252    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 253
 254    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 255    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 256
 257    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 258    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 259
 260    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 261    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 262
 263    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 264    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 265
 266    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 267    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 268
 269    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 270    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 271
 272    # Whether join hints should be generated
 273    JOIN_HINTS = True
 274
 275    # Whether table hints should be generated
 276    TABLE_HINTS = True
 277
 278    # Whether query hints should be generated
 279    QUERY_HINTS = True
 280
 281    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 282    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 283
 284    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 285    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 286
 287    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 288    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 289
 290    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 291    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 292
 293    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 294    RETURNING_END = True
 295
 296    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 297    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 298
 299    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 300    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 301
 302    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 303    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 306    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 307
 308    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 309    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 310    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 311    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 314    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 315
 316    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 317    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 318
 319    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 320    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 321
 322    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 323    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 324
 325    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 326    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 327
 328    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 329    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 330
 331    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 332    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 333
 334    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 335    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 336
 337    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 338    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 339
 340    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 341    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 342
 343    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 344    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 345
 346    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 347    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 348
 349    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 350    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 351
 352    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 353    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 354
 355    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 356    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 357
 358    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 359    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 360
 361    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 362    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 363
 364    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 365    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 366
 367    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 368    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 369
 370    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 371    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 372
 373    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 374    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 375
 376    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 377    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 378
 379    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 380    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 381
 382    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 383    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 384
 385    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 386    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 387
 388    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 389    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 390    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 391
 392    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 393    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 394
 395    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 396    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 397
 398    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 399    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 400
 401    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 402    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 403
 404    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 405    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 406
 407    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 409
 410    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
 412
 413    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 414    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 415    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 416    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 417
 418    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 419    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 420
 421    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 422    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 425    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 426
 427    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 428    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 429
 430    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 431    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 432
 433    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 434    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 435
 436    # The HEX function name
 437    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 438
 439    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 440    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 441
 442    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 443    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 444
 445    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 446    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 447
 448    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 449    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 450
 451    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 452    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 453
 454    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 455    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 456
 457    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 458    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 459
 460    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 461    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 462
 463    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 464    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 465
 466    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 467    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 468
 469    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 470    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 471
 472    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 473    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 474    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 475    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 476    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 477
 478    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 479        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 480        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 481        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 482        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 483        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 484        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 485        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 486        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 487        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 488        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 489        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 490        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 491        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 492    }
 493
 494    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 495        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 496        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 497        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 498        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 499        "DAYS": "DAY",
 500        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 501        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 502        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 503        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 504    }
 505
 506    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 507        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 508        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 509        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 510        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 511            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 512            if e.args.get("windows")
 513            else ""
 514        ),
 515        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 516    }
 517
 518    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 519
 520    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 521
 522    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 523    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 524
 525    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 526
 527    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 528        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 530        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 534        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 536        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 545        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 557        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 558        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 559        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 561        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 566        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 567        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 572        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 573        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 574        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 575        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 576        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 578        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 581        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 584        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 592        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 597        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 599        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 600        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 603        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 605        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 606        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 608        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 609        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 610        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 611        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 612        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 613        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 614        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 615        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 616        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 617        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 618        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 619        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 620        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 621        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 622        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 623    }
 624
 625    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 626    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 627
 628    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 629    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 630        exp.Command,
 631        exp.Create,
 632        exp.Describe,
 633        exp.Delete,
 634        exp.Drop,
 635        exp.From,
 636        exp.Insert,
 637        exp.Join,
 638        exp.MultitableInserts,
 639        exp.Select,
 640        exp.SetOperation,
 641        exp.Update,
 642        exp.Where,
 643        exp.With,
 644    )
 645
 646    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 647    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 648        exp.Binary,
 649        exp.SetOperation,
 650    )
 651
 652    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 653    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 654        exp.Column,
 655        exp.Literal,
 656        exp.Neg,
 657        exp.Paren,
 658    )
 659
 660    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 661        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 662        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 663        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 664        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 665    }
 666
 667    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 668    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 669
 670    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()
 671
 672    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 673
 674    __slots__ = (
 675        "pretty",
 676        "identify",
 677        "normalize",
 678        "pad",
 679        "_indent",
 680        "normalize_functions",
 681        "unsupported_level",
 682        "max_unsupported",
 683        "leading_comma",
 684        "max_text_width",
 685        "comments",
 686        "dialect",
 687        "unsupported_messages",
 688        "_escaped_quote_end",
 689        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 690        "_next_name",
 691        "_identifier_start",
 692        "_identifier_end",
 693        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 694    )
 695
 696    def __init__(
 697        self,
 698        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 699        identify: str | bool = False,
 700        normalize: bool = False,
 701        pad: int = 2,
 702        indent: int = 2,
 703        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 704        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 705        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 706        leading_comma: bool = False,
 707        max_text_width: int = 80,
 708        comments: bool = True,
 709        dialect: DialectType = None,
 710    ):
 711        import sqlglot
 712        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 713
 714        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 715        self.identify = identify
 716        self.normalize = normalize
 717        self.pad = pad
 718        self._indent = indent
 719        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 720        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 721        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 722        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 723        self.comments = comments
 724        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 725
 726        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 727        self.normalize_functions = (
 728            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 729        )
 730
 731        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 732        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 733            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 734        )
 735        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 736
 737        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 738
 739        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 740        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 741
 742        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 743
 744    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 745        """
 746        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 747
 748        Args:
 749            expression: The syntax tree.
 750            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 751                it is safer to copy.
 752
 753        Returns:
 754            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 755        """
 756        if copy:
 757            expression = expression.copy()
 758
 759        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 760
 761        self.unsupported_messages = []
 762        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 763
 764        if self.pretty:
 765            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 766
 767        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 768            return sql
 769
 770        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 771            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 772                logger.warning(msg)
 773        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 774            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 775
 776        return sql
 777
 778    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 779        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 780        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 781
 782        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 783            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 784
 785            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 786
 787        return expression
 788
 789    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 790        if (
 791            not expression.parent
 792            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 793            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 794        ):
 795            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 796
 797            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 798        return expression
 799
 800    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 801        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 802            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 803        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 804
 805    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 806        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 807
 808    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 809        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 810
 811    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 812        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 813        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 814        return comment
 815
 816    def maybe_comment(
 817        self,
 818        sql: str,
 819        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 820        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 821        separated: bool = False,
 822    ) -> str:
 823        comments = (
 824            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 825            if self.comments
 826            else None
 827        )
 828
 829        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 830            return sql
 831
 832        comments_sql = " ".join(
 833            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 834        )
 835
 836        if not comments_sql:
 837            return sql
 838
 839        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 840
 841        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 842            return (
 843                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 844                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 845                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 846            )
 847
 848        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 849
 850    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 851        this_sql = (
 852            self.sql(expression)
 853            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 854            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        )
 856        if not this_sql:
 857            return "()"
 858
 859        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 860        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 861
 862    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 863        original = self.identify
 864        self.identify = False
 865        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 866        self.identify = original
 867        return result
 868
 869    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 870        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 871            return name.upper()
 872        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 873            return name.lower()
 874        return name
 875
 876    def indent(
 877        self,
 878        sql: str,
 879        level: int = 0,
 880        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 881        skip_first: bool = False,
 882        skip_last: bool = False,
 883    ) -> str:
 884        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 885            return sql
 886
 887        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 888        lines = sql.split("\n")
 889
 890        return "\n".join(
 891            (
 892                line
 893                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 894                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 895            )
 896            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 897        )
 898
 899    def sql(
 900        self,
 901        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 902        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 903        comment: bool = True,
 904    ) -> str:
 905        if not expression:
 906            return ""
 907
 908        if isinstance(expression, str):
 909            return expression
 910
 911        if key:
 912            value = expression.args.get(key)
 913            if value:
 914                return self.sql(value)
 915            return ""
 916
 917        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 918
 919        if callable(transform):
 920            sql = transform(self, expression)
 921        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 922            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 923
 924            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 925                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 926            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 927                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 928            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 929                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 930            else:
 931                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 932        else:
 933            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 934
 935        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 936
 937    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 938        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 939        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 940        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 941
 942    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 943        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 944        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        options = expression.args.get("options")
 946        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 947        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 948        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 949        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 950        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 951
 952    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 953        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 954            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 955        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 956        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 957
 958    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 959        return ".".join(
 960            self.sql(part)
 961            for part in (
 962                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 963                expression.args.get("db"),
 964                expression.args.get("table"),
 965                expression.args.get("this"),
 966            )
 967            if part
 968        )
 969
 970    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 971        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 972
 973        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 974            join_mark = ""
 975            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 976
 977        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 978
 979    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 981        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 982        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 983        return f"{position}{this}"
 984
 985    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 986        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 987        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 988        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 989        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 990        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 991        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 992        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 993        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 994
 995        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 996            kind = ""
 997
 998        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 999
1000    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
1001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1002        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
1003        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
1004
1005    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
1006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1007        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
1008            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
1009        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
1010            persisted = " PERSISTED"
1011        else:
1012            persisted = ""
1013        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
1014
1015    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1016        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1017
1018    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1020            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1021        else:
1022            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023
1024        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1025
1026    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1027        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1028    ) -> str:
1029        this = ""
1030        if expression.this is not None:
1031            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1032            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1033
1034        start = expression.args.get("start")
1035        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1036        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1037        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1038        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1039        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1040        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1041        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1042        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1043        cycle_sql = ""
1044
1045        if cycle is not None:
1046            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1047            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1048
1049        sequence_opts = ""
1050        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1051            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1052            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1053
1054        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1055        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1056
1057        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1058
1059    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1060        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1061    ) -> str:
1062        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1063        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1064        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1065
1066    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1067        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1068    ) -> str:
1069        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1070
1071    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1072        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1073
1074    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1075        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1076
1077    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1078        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1079        if desc is not None:
1080            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1081        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1082        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1083        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
1084
1085    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1088        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1089        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1090        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1091        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1092        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1093        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1094        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1095        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
1096
1097    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1098        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1099
1100    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1101        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1102        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1103        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1104        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1105
1106        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1107
1108        properties_sql = ""
1109        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1110            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1111        ):
1112            properties_sql = self.sql(
1113                exp.Properties(
1114                    expressions=[
1115                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1116                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1117                    ]
1118                )
1119            )
1120
1121            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1122                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1123            elif not self.pretty:
1124                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1125                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1126
1127        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1128        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1129
1130        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1131        if expression_sql:
1132            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1133
1134            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1135                postalias_props_sql = ""
1136                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1137                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1138                        exp.Properties(
1139                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1140                        ),
1141                        wrapped=False,
1142                    )
1143                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1144                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1145
1146        postindex_props_sql = ""
1147        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1148            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1149                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1150                wrapped=False,
1151                prefix=" ",
1152            )
1153
1154        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1155        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1156        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1157
1158        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1159        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1160        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1161
1162        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1163        if clustered is None:
1164            clustered_sql = ""
1165        elif clustered:
1166            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1167        else:
1168            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1169
1170        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1171        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1172            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1173                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1174                sep=" ",
1175                prefix=" ",
1176                wrapped=False,
1177            )
1178
1179        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1180
1181        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1182        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1183            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1184                exp.Properties(
1185                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1186                ),
1187                sep=" ",
1188                prefix=" ",
1189                wrapped=False,
1190            )
1191
1192        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1193        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1194        no_schema_binding = (
1195            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1196        )
1197
1198        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1199        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1200
1201        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1202            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1203        else:
1204            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1205
1206        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1208
1209    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1210        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1211        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1212        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1213        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1214        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1215        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1216        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1217        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1218        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1219        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1220
1221        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1222        if cache is None:
1223            cache_str = ""
1224        elif cache is True:
1225            cache_str = " CACHE"
1226        else:
1227            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1228
1229        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1230        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1231
1232        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1233
1234    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1237        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1238        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1239
1240    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1241        style = expression.args.get("style")
1242        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1243        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1244        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1245        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1246        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1247
1248        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1249
1250    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1251        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1252        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1253
1254    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1255        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1256        if with_:
1257            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1258        return sql
1259
1260    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1261        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1262        recursive = (
1263            "RECURSIVE "
1264            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1265            else ""
1266        )
1267        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1268        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1269
1270        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1271
1272    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1273        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1274        if alias:
1275            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1276
1277        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1278
1279        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1280        if materialized is False:
1281            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1282        elif materialized:
1283            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1284
1285        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1286
1287    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1288        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1289        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1290        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1291
1292        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1293            columns = ""
1294            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1295
1296        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1297            alias = self._next_name()
1298
1299        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1300
1301    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1303        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1304            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1305        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1306
1307    def hexstring_sql(
1308        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1309    ) -> str:
1310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1312
1313        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1314            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1315        ):
1316            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1317            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1318            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1319            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1320
1321        if not is_integer_type:
1322            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1323            if binary_function_repr:
1324                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1325                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1326            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1327                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1328                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1329
1330        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1331
1332    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1334        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1335            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1336        return this
1337
1338    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1341
1342        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1343            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1344            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1345        else:
1346            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1347            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1348
1349        if escape:
1350            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1351            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1352        else:
1353            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1354            escape_sql = ""
1355
1356        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1357            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1358
1359        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1360
1361    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1362        string = expression.this
1363        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
1364            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
1365
1366        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
1367        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1368
1369    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1371        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1372        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1373        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1374
1375    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1376        nested = ""
1377        values = ""
1378        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1379
1380        type_value = expression.this
1381        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1382            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1383        else:
1384            type_sql = (
1385                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1386                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1387                else type_value
1388            )
1389
1390        if interior:
1391            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1392                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1393                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1394                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1395                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1396                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1397            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1398                nested = f" {interior}"
1399            else:
1400                nested = f"({interior})"
1401
1402        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1403        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1404            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1405            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1406        ):
1407            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1408
1409        return type_sql
1410
1411    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1412        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1413        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1414        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1415        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1416
1417    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1419        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1420        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1421        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1422        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1423        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1424        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1425        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1426        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1427        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1428        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1429        if self.RETURNING_END:
1430            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1431        else:
1432            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1433        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1434
1435    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1437        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1438        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1439        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1440        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1441        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1442        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1443        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1444        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1445        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1446        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1447        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1448        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1449        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1450        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1451
1452    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1453        op_type = type(expression)
1454        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1455
1456        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1457        if (
1458            distinct is False
1459            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1460            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1461        ):
1462            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1463
1464        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1465
1466        if distinct is None:
1467            distinct = default_distinct
1468            if distinct is None:
1469                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1470
1471        if distinct is default_distinct:
1472            distinct_or_all = ""
1473        else:
1474            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1475
1476        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1477        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1478
1479        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1480        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1481        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1482
1483        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1484
1485    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1486        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1487            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1488            order = expression.args.get("order")
1489
1490            if limit or order:
1491                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1492                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1493                )
1494
1495                if limit:
1496                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1497                if order:
1498                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1499                return self.sql(select)
1500
1501        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1502        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1503
1504        while stack:
1505            node = stack.pop()
1506
1507            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1508                stack.append(node.expression)
1509                stack.append(
1510                    self.maybe_comment(
1511                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1512                    )
1513                )
1514                stack.append(node.this)
1515            else:
1516                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1517
1518        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1519        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1520        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1521
1522    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1523        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1524        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1525        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1526        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1527        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1528        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1529        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1530
1531    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1532        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1533        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1534        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1535        if not with_ties and rows:
1536            with_ties = " ONLY"
1537        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1538
1539    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1540        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1541            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1542            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1543            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1544
1545        agg = expression.this
1546        agg_arg = agg.this
1547        cond = expression.expression.this
1548        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1549        return self.sql(agg)
1550
1551    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1552        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1553            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1554            return ""
1555
1556        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1557
1558    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1559        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1560        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1561        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1562        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1563        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1564        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1565        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1566        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1567        if include:
1568            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1569        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1570        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1571        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1572        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1573        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1574        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1575
1576        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1577
1578    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1579        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1580        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1581        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1582        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1583        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1584        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1585        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1586
1587        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1588
1589        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1590        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1591
1592    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1593        text = expression.name
1594        lower = text.lower()
1595        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1596        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1597        if (
1598            expression.quoted
1599            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1600            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1601            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1602        ):
1603            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1604        return text
1605
1606    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1607        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1608        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1609            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1610
1611        return text
1612
1613    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1614        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1615        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1616            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1617        return text
1618
1619    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1620        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1621        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1622        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1623        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1624        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1625
1626    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1627        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1628        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1629
1630    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1631        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1632        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1633
1634    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1635        root_properties = []
1636        with_properties = []
1637
1638        for p in expression.expressions:
1639            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1640            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1641                with_properties.append(p)
1642            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1643                root_properties.append(p)
1644
1645        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1646        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1647
1648        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1649            with_props = " " + with_props
1650
1651        return root_props + with_props
1652
1653    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1654        if properties.expressions:
1655            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1656        return ""
1657
1658    def properties(
1659        self,
1660        properties: exp.Properties,
1661        prefix: str = "",
1662        sep: str = ", ",
1663        suffix: str = "",
1664        wrapped: bool = True,
1665    ) -> str:
1666        if properties.expressions:
1667            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1668            if expressions:
1669                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1670                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1671        return ""
1672
1673    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1674        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1675
1676    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1677        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1678        for p in properties.expressions:
1679            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1680            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1681                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1682            else:
1683                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1684
1685        return properties_locs
1686
1687    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1688        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1689            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1690        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1691
1692    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1693        property_cls = expression.__class__
1694        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1695            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1696
1697        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1698        if not property_name:
1699            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1700
1701        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1702
1703    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1704        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1705            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1706            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1707
1708            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1709            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1710                like = f"({like})"
1711
1712            return like
1713
1714        if expression.expressions:
1715            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1716
1717        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1718        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1719
1720    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1721        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1722        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1723        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1724
1725    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1726        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1727        local = expression.args.get("local")
1728        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1729        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1730        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1731        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1732        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1733
1734    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1735        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1737        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1738
1739    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1740        if expression.args.get("default"):
1741            property = "DEFAULT"
1742        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1743            property = "ON"
1744        else:
1745            property = "OFF"
1746        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1747
1748    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1749        if expression.args.get("no"):
1750            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1751        if expression.args.get("default"):
1752            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1753
1754        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1755        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1756
1757    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1758        default = expression.args.get("default")
1759        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1760        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1761        if default or minimum or maximum:
1762            if default:
1763                prop = "DEFAULT"
1764            elif minimum:
1765                prop = "MINIMUM"
1766            else:
1767                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1768            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1769        units = expression.args.get("units")
1770        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1771        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1772
1773    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1774        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1775        always = expression.args.get("always")
1776        default = expression.args.get("default")
1777        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1778        never = expression.args.get("never")
1779
1780        if autotemp is not None:
1781            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1782        elif always:
1783            prop = "ALWAYS"
1784        elif default:
1785            prop = "DEFAULT"
1786        elif manual:
1787            prop = "MANUAL"
1788        elif never:
1789            prop = "NEVER"
1790        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1791
1792    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1793        no = expression.args.get("no")
1794        no = " NO" if no else ""
1795        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1796        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1797        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1798        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1799        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1800
1801    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1802        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1803            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1804        if expression.this:
1805            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1806            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1807            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1808
1809        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1810        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1811        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1812
1813    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1815
1816        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1817        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1818            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1819        else:
1820            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1821
1822        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1823
1824    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1825        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1826        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1827        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1828        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1829        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1830        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1831        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1832
1833    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1834        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1835        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1836        statistics_sql = ""
1837        if statistics is not None:
1838            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1839        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1840
1841    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1843        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1844        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1845        data_consistency = (
1846            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1847        )
1848        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1849        retention_period = (
1850            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1851        )
1852
1853        if this:
1854            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1855        else:
1856            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1857
1858        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1859
1860        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1861
1862    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1863        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1864        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1865
1866        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1867            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1868        else:
1869            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1870
1871        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1872        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1873        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1874        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1875        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1876        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1877        if is_function:
1878            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1879        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1880
1881        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1882        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1883        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1884        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1885        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1886        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1887        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1888        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1889
1890        if self.RETURNING_END:
1891            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1892        else:
1893            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1894
1895        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1896        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1897        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1898        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1899
1900        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1901        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1902
1903        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1904        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1905
1906    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1908
1909    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1911        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1914        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1915
1916    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1917        return expression.name
1918
1919    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1920        return expression.name
1921
1922    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1923        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1924
1925        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1926        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1927
1928        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1929        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1930        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1931
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1933        if expressions:
1934            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1935            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1936
1937        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1938        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1939
1940    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1941        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1942
1943    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1944        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1945        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1946        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1947        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1948        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1949        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1950        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1951        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1952        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1953        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1954        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1955        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1956        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1957
1958    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1959        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1960
1961    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1962        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1963        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1964        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1965        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1966
1967    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1970        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1971        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1972
1973    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1974        return ".".join(
1975            self.sql(part)
1976            for part in (
1977                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1978                expression.args.get("db"),
1979                expression.args.get("this"),
1980            )
1981            if part is not None
1982        )
1983
1984    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1985        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1986        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1987        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1988        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1989        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1990        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1991        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1992        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1993
1994        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1995        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1996            sample_pre_alias = sample
1997            sample_post_alias = ""
1998        else:
1999            sample_pre_alias = ""
2000            sample_post_alias = sample
2001
2002        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
2003        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
2004        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2005        joins = self.indent(
2006            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2007        )
2008        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
2009
2010        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
2011        if file_format:
2012            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2013            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
2014            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
2015
2016        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2017        if ordinality:
2018            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2019            alias = ""
2020
2021        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
2022        if when:
2023            table = f"{table} {when}"
2024
2025        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2026        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2027
2028        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2029        if rows_from:
2030            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2031
2032        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2033
2034    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2035        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2036        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2037        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2038        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2039        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2040        joins = self.indent(
2041            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2042        )
2043        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2044
2045    def tablesample_sql(
2046        self,
2047        expression: exp.TableSample,
2048        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2049    ) -> str:
2050        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2051        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2052        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2053        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2054        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2055        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2056        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2057        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2058        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2059
2060        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2061        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2062            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2063
2064        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2065        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2066            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2067
2068        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2069        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2070            expr = f"({expr})"
2071
2072        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2073
2074    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2075        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2076        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2077
2078        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2079
2080        if expression.this:
2081            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082            if not expressions:
2083                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2084
2085            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2086            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2087            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2088            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2089            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2090            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2091
2092        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2093        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2094
2095        fields = self.expressions(
2096            expression,
2097            "fields",
2098            sep=" ",
2099            dynamic=True,
2100            new_line=True,
2101            skip_first=True,
2102            skip_last=True,
2103        )
2104
2105        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2106        if include_nulls is not None:
2107            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2108        else:
2109            nulls = ""
2110
2111        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2112        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2113        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2114
2115    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2116        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2117        kind = expression.text("kind")
2118        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2119        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2120
2121    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2122        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2123
2124    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2128        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2129        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2130        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2131        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2132        if self.RETURNING_END:
2133            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2134        else:
2135            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2136        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2137        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2138
2139    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2140        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2141
2142        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2143        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2144            args = self.expressions(expression)
2145            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2146            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2147            values = (
2148                f"({values})"
2149                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2150                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2151                else values
2152            )
2153            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2154
2155        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2156        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2157        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2158
2159        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2160
2161        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2162            row = tup.expressions
2163
2164            if i == 0 and column_names:
2165                row = [
2166                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2167                ]
2168
2169            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2170
2171        if self.pretty:
2172            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2173            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2174            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2175            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2176            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2177
2178        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2179        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2180        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2181
2182    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2183        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2184
2185    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2186    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2187        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2188        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2189        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2190
2191    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2192        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2193
2194    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2195        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2196        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2197
2198    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2199        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2200        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2201
2202    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2203        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2204        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2205
2206    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2207        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2208        if group_by_all is True:
2209            modifier = " ALL"
2210        elif group_by_all is False:
2211            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2212        else:
2213            modifier = ""
2214
2215        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2216
2217        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2218        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2219        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2220
2221        groupings = csv(
2222            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2223            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2224            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2225            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2226            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2227        )
2228
2229        if (
2230            expression.expressions
2231            and groupings
2232            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2233        ):
2234            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2235
2236        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2237
2238    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2239        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2240        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2241
2242    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2243        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2244        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2245        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2246        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2247        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2248        return start + connect
2249
2250    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2251        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2252
2253    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2254        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2255            side = None
2256        else:
2257            side = expression.side
2258
2259        op_sql = " ".join(
2260            op
2261            for op in (
2262                expression.method,
2263                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2264                side,
2265                expression.kind,
2266                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2267            )
2268            if op
2269        )
2270        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2271        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2272        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2273        using = expression.args.get("using")
2274
2275        if not on_sql and using:
2276            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2277
2278        this = expression.this
2279        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2280
2281        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2282        if exprs:
2283            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2284
2285        if on_sql:
2286            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2287            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2288            if using:
2289                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2290            else:
2291                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2292        elif not op_sql:
2293            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2294                return f" {this_sql}"
2295
2296            return f", {this_sql}"
2297
2298        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2299            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2300
2301        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2302        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
2303
2304    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2305        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2306        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2307        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2308
2309    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2310        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2311
2312        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2313        if cross_apply is True:
2314            op = "INNER JOIN "
2315        elif cross_apply is False:
2316            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2317        else:
2318            op = ""
2319
2320        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2321
2322    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2324
2325        if expression.args.get("view"):
2326            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2327            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2328            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2329            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2330            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2331            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2332
2333        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2334        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2335
2336        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2337        if ordinality:
2338            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2339            alias = ""
2340
2341        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2342
2343    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2345
2346        args = [
2347            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2348            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2349            if e
2350        ]
2351
2352        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2353        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2354        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2355        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2356        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2357
2358        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2359
2360    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2362        value = expression.expression
2363        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2364        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2365        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2366        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2367
2368    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2369        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2370        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2371        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2372        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2373        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2374        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2375        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2376        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2377
2378    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2379        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2380        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2381        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2382
2383    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2384        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2385
2386    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2387        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2388            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2389            return ""
2390
2391        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2392        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2393        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2394        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2395
2396        if wait is not None:
2397            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2398                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2399            else:
2400                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2401
2402        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2403
2404    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2405        text = expression.this or ""
2406        if expression.is_string:
2407            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2408        return text
2409
2410    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2411        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2412            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2413            text = "".join(
2414                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2415            )
2416
2417        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2418            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2419        )
2420
2421    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2422        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2423        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2424        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2425        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2426        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2427        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2428        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2429        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2430        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2431        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2432        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2433
2434    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2435        return "NULL"
2436
2437    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2438        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2439
2440    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2442        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2443        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2444        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2445
2446    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2447        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2448        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2449        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2450        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2451        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2452        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2453        interpolated_values = [
2454            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2455            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2456            else self.sql(e, "this")
2457            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2458        ]
2459        interpolate = (
2460            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2461        )
2462        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2463
2464    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2465        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2466
2467    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2468        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2469
2470    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2471        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2472
2473    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2474        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2475        asc = not desc
2476
2477        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2478        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2479        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2480        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2481        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2482
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484
2485        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2486        nulls_sort_change = ""
2487        if nulls_first and (
2488            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2489        ):
2490            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2491        elif (
2492            nulls_last
2493            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2494            and not nulls_are_last
2495        ):
2496            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2497
2498        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2499        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2500            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2501            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2502                self.unsupported(
2503                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2504                )
2505                nulls_sort_change = ""
2506            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2507                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2508                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2509            ):
2510                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2511                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2512                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2513
2514                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2515                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2516                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2517                    self.unsupported(
2518                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2519                    )
2520                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2521            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2522                if expression.this.is_int:
2523                    self.unsupported(
2524                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2525                    )
2526                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2527                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2528                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2529                nulls_sort_change = ""
2530
2531        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2532        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2533
2534        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2535
2536    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2537        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2538        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2539
2540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2541
2542        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2543
2544    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2545        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2546        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2547        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2548        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2549        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2550        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2551        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2552        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2553        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2554        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2555        definition_sqls = [
2556            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2557            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2558        ]
2559        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2560        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2561        body = "".join(
2562            (
2563                partition,
2564                order,
2565                measures,
2566                rows,
2567                after,
2568                pattern,
2569                define,
2570            )
2571        )
2572        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2573        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2574        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2575
2576    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2577        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2578
2579        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2580            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2581        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2582            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2583
2584        return csv(
2585            *sqls,
2586            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2587            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2588            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2589            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2590            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2591            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2592            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2593            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2594            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2595            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2596            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2597            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2598            self.options_modifier(expression),
2599            sep="",
2600        )
2601
2602    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2603        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2604        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2605
2606    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2607        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
2608        return ""
2609
2610    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2611        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2612    ) -> t.List[str]:
2613        return [
2614            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2615            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2616        ]
2617
2618    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2619        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2620        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2621        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2622
2623    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2624        into = expression.args.get("into")
2625        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2626            into.pop()
2627
2628        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2629        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2630        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2631        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2632
2633        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2634        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2635            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2636            limit.pop()
2637        else:
2638            top = ""
2639
2640        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2641
2642        if kind:
2643            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2644                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2645            else:
2646                if kind == "STRUCT":
2647                    expressions = self.expressions(
2648                        sqls=[
2649                            self.sql(
2650                                exp.Struct(
2651                                    expressions=[
2652                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2653                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2654                                        else e
2655                                        for e in expression.expressions
2656                                    ]
2657                                )
2658                            )
2659                        ]
2660                    )
2661                kind = ""
2662
2663        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2664        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2665
2666        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2667        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2668        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2669        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2670        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2671            expression,
2672            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2673            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2674            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2675        )
2676
2677        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2678        if expression.args.get("with"):
2679            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2680            expression.pop_comments()
2681
2682        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2683
2684        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2685            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2686                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2687            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2688                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2689            else:
2690                table_kind = ""
2691            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2692
2693        return sql
2694
2695    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2698        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2699
2700    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2701        if expression.expressions:
2702            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2703        return ""
2704
2705    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2706        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2707        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2708        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2709        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2710        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2711        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2712        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2713
2714    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2717
2718    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        kind = expression.text("kind")
2721        if kind:
2722            kind = f"{kind}."
2723        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2724
2725    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2726        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2727
2728    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2729        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2730        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2731        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2732        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2733            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2734
2735            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2736            expression.set("sample", None)
2737
2738        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2739        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2740        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2741
2742    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2743        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2744        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2745
2746    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2747        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2748
2749        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2750        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2751
2752        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2753            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2754                alias.append("columns", offset)
2755
2756        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2757            columns = alias.columns
2758            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2759        else:
2760            alias = self.sql(alias)
2761
2762        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2763        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2764            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2765        else:
2766            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2767                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2768            elif offset:
2769                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2770            else:
2771                suffix = alias
2772
2773        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2774
2775    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2776        return ""
2777
2778    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2779        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2780        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2781
2782    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2784        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2785        order = expression.args.get("order")
2786        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2787        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2788        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2789        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2790
2791        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2792
2793        first = expression.args.get("first")
2794        if first is None:
2795            first = ""
2796        else:
2797            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2798
2799        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2800            return f"{this} {alias}"
2801
2802        args = self.format_args(
2803            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
2804        )
2805        return f"{this} ({args})"
2806
2807    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2808        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2809        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2810
2811    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2812        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2813        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2814        end = (
2815            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2816            or "CURRENT ROW"
2817        )
2818
2819        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2820
2821        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
2822        if exclude:
2823            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
2824                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
2825            else:
2826                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
2827
2828        return window_spec
2829
2830    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2832        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2833        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2834
2835    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2837        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2838        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2839        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2840
2841    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2842        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2843    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2844        return apply_index_offset(
2845            expression.this,
2846            expression.expressions,
2847            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2848            dialect=self.dialect,
2849        )
2850
2851    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2852        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2853        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2854        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2855
2856    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2857        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2858
2859    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2862            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2863                this = self.wrap(this)
2864            return f"ANY{this}"
2865        return f"ANY {this}"
2866
2867    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2868        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2869
2870    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2873
2874        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2875            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2876            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2877
2878        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2879
2880        if default:
2881            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2882
2883        statements.append("END")
2884
2885        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2886            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2887
2888        return " ".join(statements)
2889
2890    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2893        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2894
2895    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2896        order = expression.args.get("order")
2897        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2898        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2899
2900    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2902        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2903        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2904
2905    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2906        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2907
2908        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2909            func_name = "LTRIM"
2910        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2911            func_name = "RTRIM"
2912        else:
2913            func_name = "TRIM"
2914
2915        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2916
2917    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2918        args = expression.expressions
2919        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2920            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2921
2922        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2923            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2924
2925        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2926            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2927
2928        return args
2929
2930    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2931        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2932
2933        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2934        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2935            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2936
2937        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2938
2939    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2940        return self.func(
2941            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2942        )
2943
2944    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2945        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2946        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2947
2948    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2950        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2951        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2952        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2953        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2954        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2955        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2956        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2957        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2958        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2959        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
2960
2961    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2963        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2964        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2965        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2966
2967    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2968        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2969
2970    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2971        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2972        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2973        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2974
2975    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2976        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2977
2978    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2979        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2980
2981        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2982            path = self.escape_str(path)
2983
2984        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2985            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2986
2987        return path
2988
2989    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2990        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2991            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2992            if not callable(transform):
2993                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2994                return ""
2995
2996            return transform(self, expression)
2997
2998        if isinstance(expression, int):
2999            return str(expression)
3000
3001        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
3002            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
3003            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
3004        else:
3005            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
3006            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
3007
3008        return escaped
3009
3010    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
3011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
3012
3013    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3014        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3015        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3016
3017        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
3018        if unique_keys is not None:
3019            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
3020        else:
3021            unique_keys = ""
3022
3023        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3024        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3025        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
3026        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
3027
3028        return self.func(
3029            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
3030            *expression.expressions,
3031            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
3032        )
3033
3034    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3035        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
3036
3037    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
3038        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3039        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3040        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3041        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3042        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3043        return self.func(
3044            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3045        )
3046
3047    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3049        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3050        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3051        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3052        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3053        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3054        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3055        return self.func(
3056            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3057            this,
3058            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3059        )
3060
3061    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3062        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3063        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3064        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3065
3066        if nested_schema:
3067            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3068
3069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3070        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3071        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3072        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3073
3074    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3075        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3076
3077    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3079        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3080        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3081        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3082        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3083        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3084        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3085        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3086        return self.func(
3087            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3088        )
3089
3090    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3092        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3093        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3094        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3095        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3096        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3097
3098    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3100        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3101        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3102        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3103        with_ = (
3104            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3105            if expressions
3106            else ""
3107        )
3108        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3109
3110    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3111        query = expression.args.get("query")
3112        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3113        field = expression.args.get("field")
3114        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3115
3116        if query:
3117            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3118        elif unnest:
3119            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3120        elif field:
3121            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3122        else:
3123            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3124
3125        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3126
3127    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3128        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3129
3130    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3131        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3132        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3133            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3134        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3135
3136        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3137            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3138            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3139
3140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3141        if this:
3142            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3143            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3144
3145        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3146
3147    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3148        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3149
3150    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3153        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3154        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3155        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3156        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3157
3158    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3159        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3160        parent = expression.parent
3161        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3162        return self.func(
3163            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3164        )
3165
3166    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3167        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3168        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3169
3170    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3171        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3172        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3173        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3174        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3175
3176    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3177        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3178
3179    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3180        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3181        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3183
3184    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3185        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3186
3187        parent = expression.parent
3188        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3189
3190        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3191            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3192            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3193
3194            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3195                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3196            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3197                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3198
3199        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3200
3201    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3202        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3203
3204    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3206        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3207        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3208
3209    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3211        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3212        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3213
3214    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3217        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3218
3219    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3220        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3221
3222    def and_sql(
3223        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3224    ) -> str:
3225        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3226
3227    def or_sql(
3228        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3229    ) -> str:
3230        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3231
3232    def xor_sql(
3233        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3234    ) -> str:
3235        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3236
3237    def connector_sql(
3238        self,
3239        expression: exp.Connector,
3240        op: str,
3241        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3242    ) -> str:
3243        if stack is not None:
3244            if expression.expressions:
3245                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3246            else:
3247                stack.append(expression.right)
3248                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3249                    for comment in expression.comments:
3250                        if comment:
3251                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3252                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3253            return op
3254
3255        stack = [expression]
3256        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3257        ops = set()
3258
3259        while stack:
3260            node = stack.pop()
3261            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3262                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3263            else:
3264                sql = self.sql(node)
3265                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3266                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3267                else:
3268                    sqls.append(sql)
3269
3270        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3271        return sep.join(sqls)
3272
3273    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3275
3276    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3278
3279    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3280        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3281
3282    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3284
3285    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3287
3288    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3290
3291    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3292        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3293        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3294        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3295        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3296        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3297        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3298        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3299        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3300        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3301
3302    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3303        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3304        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3305
3306    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3307        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3308            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3309        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3310
3311    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3312        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3313
3314    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3316        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3317        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3318        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3319        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3320        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3321
3322    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3324        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3325        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3326        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3327        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3328        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3329        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3330        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3331        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3332
3333    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3334        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3335        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3336        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3337        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3338
3339        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3340            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3341
3342        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3343
3344    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3345        return "BEGIN"
3346
3347    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3348        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3349        if chain is not None:
3350            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3351
3352        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3353
3354    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3355        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3356        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3357        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3358
3359    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3361
3362        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3363        if dtype:
3364            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3365            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3366            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3367            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3368            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
3369            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
3370
3371        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3372        if default:
3373            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3374
3375        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3376        if comment:
3377            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3378
3379        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3380        if visible:
3381            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3382
3383        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3384        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3385
3386        if not drop and not allow_null:
3387            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3388
3389        if allow_null is not None:
3390            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3391            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3392
3393        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3394
3395    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3397
3398        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3399        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3400
3401        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3402
3403    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3405        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3406            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3407        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3408
3409    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3410        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3412        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3413        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3414        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3415
3416    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3417        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3418            # Remove db from tables
3419            expression = expression.transform(
3420                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3421            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3423        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3424
3425    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3426        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3427        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3428        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3429        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3430
3431    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3432        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3433        return f"SET {exprs}"
3434
3435    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3436        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3437
3438        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3439            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3440        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3441            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3442        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3443            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3444        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3445            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3446        else:
3447            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3448
3449        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3450        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3451        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3452        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3453        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3454        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3455        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3456        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3457
3458        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3459
3460    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3461        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3462            return self.expressions(
3463                expression,
3464                key="actions",
3465                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3466                skip_first=True,
3467            )
3468        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3469
3470    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3471        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3472        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3473        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3474
3475    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3476        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3477
3478    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3479        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3480
3481        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3482            case = exp.case()
3483            for arg in expression.expressions:
3484                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3485            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3486
3487        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3488
3489        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3490        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3491        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3492
3493    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3494        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3495
3496    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3497        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3498
3499    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3500        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3501        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3502        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3503        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3504
3505    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3506        return self.sql(
3507            exp.Cast(
3508                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3509                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3510            )
3511        )
3512
3513    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3514        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3515            return self.func(
3516                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3517            )
3518        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3519
3520    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3521        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3522
3523        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3524            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3525
3526        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3527            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3528                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3529
3530        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3531            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3532                return self.sql(
3533                    exp.cast(
3534                        l / r,
3535                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3536                    )
3537                )
3538
3539        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3540
3541    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3542        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3543        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3544        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3545
3546    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3547        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3548
3549    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3550        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3551
3552    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3554
3555    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3556        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3557
3558    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3559        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3560
3561    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3562        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3563
3564    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3565        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3566
3567    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3568        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3569
3570    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3571        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3572
3573    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3574        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3575
3576    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3577        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3578
3579    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3580        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3581            return self.sql(
3582                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3583            )
3584        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3585
3586    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3587        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3588
3589    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3590        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3591
3592    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3593        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3594
3595    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3596        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3597
3598    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3599        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3600
3601    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3602        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3603
3604    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3605        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3606
3607    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3608        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3609
3610    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3611        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3612
3613    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3614        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3615
3616    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3617        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3618
3619    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3620        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3621
3622    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3623        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3624
3625    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3626        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3627
3628    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3629        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3630            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3631            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3632
3633        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3634
3635    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3636        this = expression.this
3637        expr = expression.expression
3638
3639        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3640            this, expr = expr, this
3641        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3642            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3643                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3644
3645            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3646
3647        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3648
3649    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3650        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3651        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3652        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3653        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3654        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3655
3656    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3657        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3658        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3659        binary_type = type(expression)
3660
3661        while stack:
3662            node = stack.pop()
3663
3664            if type(node) is binary_type:
3665                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3666                if op_func:
3667                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3668
3669                stack.append(node.right)
3670                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3671                stack.append(node.left)
3672            else:
3673                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3674
3675        return "".join(sqls)
3676
3677    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3678        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3679        if to_clause:
3680            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3681
3682        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3683
3684    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3685        args = []
3686
3687        for key in expression.arg_types:
3688            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3689
3690            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3691                for value in arg_value:
3692                    args.append(value)
3693            elif arg_value is not None:
3694                args.append(arg_value)
3695
3696        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3697            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3698        else:
3699            name = expression.sql_name()
3700
3701        return self.func(name, *args)
3702
3703    def func(
3704        self,
3705        name: str,
3706        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3707        prefix: str = "(",
3708        suffix: str = ")",
3709        normalize: bool = True,
3710    ) -> str:
3711        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3712        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3713
3714    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3715        arg_sqls = tuple(
3716            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3717        )
3718        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3719            return self.indent(
3720                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3721            )
3722        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3723
3724    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3725        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3726
3727    def format_time(
3728        self,
3729        expression: exp.Expression,
3730        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3731        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3732    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3733        return format_time(
3734            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3735            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3736            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3737        )
3738
3739    def expressions(
3740        self,
3741        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3742        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3743        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3744        flat: bool = False,
3745        indent: bool = True,
3746        skip_first: bool = False,
3747        skip_last: bool = False,
3748        sep: str = ", ",
3749        prefix: str = "",
3750        dynamic: bool = False,
3751        new_line: bool = False,
3752    ) -> str:
3753        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3754
3755        if not expressions:
3756            return ""
3757
3758        if flat:
3759            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3760
3761        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3762        result_sqls = []
3763
3764        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3765            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3766            if not sql:
3767                continue
3768
3769            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3770
3771            if self.pretty:
3772                if self.leading_comma:
3773                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3774                else:
3775                    result_sqls.append(
3776                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3777                    )
3778            else:
3779                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3780
3781        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3782            if new_line:
3783                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3784                result_sqls.append("")
3785            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3786        else:
3787            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3788
3789        return (
3790            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3791            if indent
3792            else result_sql
3793        )
3794
3795    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3796        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3797        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3798        if flat:
3799            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3800        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3801
3802    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3803        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3804        if not property_name:
3805            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3806        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3807
3808    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3809        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3810
3811    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3812        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3813
3814    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3816        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3817        expressions = (
3818            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3819        )
3820        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3821
3822    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3825        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3826
3827    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3828        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3829
3830    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3831        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3832        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3833        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3834        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3835
3836        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3837        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3838            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3839            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3840            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3841            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3842        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3843            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3844                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3845            else:
3846                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
3847        else:
3848            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3849        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3850
3851    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3852        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3853
3854    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3855        table = expression.this
3856        table_alias = ""
3857
3858        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3859        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3860            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3861            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3862
3863        this = self.sql(table)
3864        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3865        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3866        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3867
3868        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3869        if returning:
3870            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3871
3872        sep = self.sep()
3873
3874        return self.prepend_ctes(
3875            expression,
3876            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3877        )
3878
3879    @unsupported_args("format")
3880    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3881        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3882
3883    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3884        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3885            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3886            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3887
3888        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3889        if not fmt:
3890            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3891            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3892
3893        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3894
3895    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3897        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3898        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3899        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3900        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3901
3902    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3904        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3905        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3906        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3907
3908    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3910
3911    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3912        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3913
3914    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3915    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3916        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3917
3918    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3919    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3920        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3921        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3922        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3924        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3925        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3926        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3927
3928    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3929        return ""
3930
3931    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3933        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3934        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3935        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3936        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3937
3938    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3940        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3941
3942        if having:
3943            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3944
3945        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3946
3947    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3948        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3949        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3950        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3951        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3952        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3953        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3954        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3955        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3956        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3957        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3958        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3959        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3960        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3961
3962    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3963        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3964        if key_block_size:
3965            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3966
3967        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3968        if using:
3969            return f"USING {using}"
3970
3971        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3972        if parser:
3973            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3974
3975        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3976        if comment:
3977            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3978
3979        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3980        if visible is not None:
3981            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3982
3983        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3984        if engine_attr:
3985            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3986
3987        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3988        if secondary_engine_attr:
3989            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3990
3991        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3992        return ""
3993
3994    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3995        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3996        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3997
3998    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3999        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4000        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
4001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4002        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4003        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
4004        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
4005        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4006        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4007        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4008        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4009        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
4010
4011    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
4012        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
4013            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4014
4015        case = exp.Case().when(
4016            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
4017            expression.args["true"],
4018            copy=False,
4019        )
4020        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
4021        if else_cond:
4022            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
4023
4024        return self.sql(case)
4025
4026    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
4027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4028        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4029        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
4030        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
4031        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
4032        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
4033
4034    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
4035        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
4036
4037    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
4038        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4039
4040    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4041        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4042        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4043        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4044        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4045        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4046        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4047
4048    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4050        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4051        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4052
4053    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4055        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4056        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4057
4058    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4059        arg = expression.this
4060        if not arg.type:
4061            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4062
4063            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4064
4065        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4066            return self.sql(arg)
4067
4068        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4069        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4070
4071    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4072        this = expression.this
4073        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4074
4075        if time_format:
4076            return self.sql(
4077                exp.cast(
4078                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4079                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4080                )
4081            )
4082
4083        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4084            return self.sql(this)
4085
4086        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4087
4088    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4089        this = expression.this
4090        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4091            return self.sql(this)
4092
4093        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4094
4095    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4096        this = expression.this
4097        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4098            return self.sql(this)
4099
4100        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4101
4102    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4103        this = expression.this
4104        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4105
4106        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4107            return self.sql(
4108                exp.cast(
4109                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4110                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4111                )
4112            )
4113
4114        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4115            return self.sql(this)
4116
4117        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4118
4119    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4120        return self.sql(
4121            exp.func(
4122                "DATEDIFF",
4123                expression.this,
4124                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4125                "day",
4126            )
4127        )
4128
4129    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4130        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4131            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4132
4133        unit = expression.text("unit")
4134        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4135            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4136
4137        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4138
4139    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4140        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4141
4142        return self.func(
4143            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4144        )
4145
4146    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4147        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4148            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4149            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4150            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4151            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4152
4153        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4154
4155        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4156        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4157            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4158
4159        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4160
4161    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4162        expression.set(
4163            "expressions",
4164            [
4165                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4166                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4167                else e
4168                for e in expression.expressions
4169            ],
4170        )
4171
4172        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4173
4174    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4175        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4176        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4177
4178        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4179
4180    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4181        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4182        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4183
4184        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4185
4186        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4187        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4188
4189        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4190        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4191
4192        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4193        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4194
4195        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4196        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4197
4198        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4199
4200    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4201    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4202    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4203        to = expression.this
4204        value = expression.expression
4205        style = expression.args.get("style")
4206        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4207        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4208
4209        if not to or not value:
4210            return ""
4211
4212        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4213        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4214            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4215
4216        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4217        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4218
4219        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4220        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4221            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4222
4223            style_value = style.name
4224            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4225            if not converted_style:
4226                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4227
4228            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4229
4230            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4231                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4232            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4233                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4234            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4235                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4236            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4237                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4238
4239        if not transformed:
4240            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4241
4242        return self.sql(transformed)
4243
4244    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4245        this = expression.this
4246        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4247            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4248            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4249
4250        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4251            return f".{this}"
4252
4253        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4254        return (
4255            f"[{this}]"
4256            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4257            else f".{this}"
4258        )
4259
4260    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4261        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4262        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4263
4264    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4265        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4266            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4267
4268            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4269
4270        return expression
4271
4272    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4273        this = expression.this
4274        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
4275            self.unsupported(
4276                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
4277            )
4278            return self.sql(this)
4279
4280        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4281            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4282            mods = sorted(
4283                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4284                key=lambda x: 0
4285                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4286                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4287            )
4288
4289            if mods:
4290                mod = mods[0]
4291                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4292                this.meta["inline"] = True
4293                mod.this.replace(this)
4294                return self.sql(expression.this)
4295
4296            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4297
4298            if agg_func:
4299                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4300                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
4301
4302        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4303
4304    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4305        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4306        if self.pretty:
4307            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4308        return string
4309
4310    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4311        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4312
4313        if expression.expressions:
4314            upper = option.upper()
4315
4316            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4317            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4318
4319            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4320            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4321            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4322            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4323
4324        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4325
4326        if not value:
4327            return option
4328
4329        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4330
4331        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4332
4333    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4334        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4335        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4336            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4337            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4338            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4339        else:
4340            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4341            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4342            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4343
4344        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4345        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4346
4347        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4348        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4349
4350        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4351        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4352
4353        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4354        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4355
4356        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4357
4358    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4360        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4361
4362        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4363        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4364        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4365        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4366
4367        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4368        params = self.expressions(
4369            expression,
4370            key="params",
4371            sep=sep,
4372            new_line=True,
4373            skip_last=True,
4374            skip_first=True,
4375            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4376        )
4377
4378        if params:
4379            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4380                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4381            elif not self.pretty:
4382                params = f" {params}"
4383
4384        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4385
4386    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4387        return ""
4388
4389    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4390        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4391        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4392        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4393        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4394        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4395
4396        if filter_col or retention_period:
4397            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4398
4399        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4400
4401    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4402        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4403    ) -> str:
4404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4406        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4407        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4408
4409    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4410        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4411        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4412        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4413
4414    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4415        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4416
4417    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4419        expr = expression.expression
4420
4421        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4422            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4423            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4424        else:
4425            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4426
4427        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4428
4429    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4430        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4431            return self.sql(expression.this)
4432
4433        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4434
4435    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4436        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4437        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4438
4439        if lower and upper:
4440            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4441        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4442
4443    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4444        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4445        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4446        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4447        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4448        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4449        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4450
4451        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4452
4453    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4454        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4455
4456        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4457        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4458            fill_pattern = "' '"
4459
4460        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4461
4462    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4463        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4464        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4465
4466    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4467        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4468
4469        parent = expression.parent
4470        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4471            parent = parent.parent
4472
4473        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4474            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4475
4476        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4477            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4478
4479        return self.sql(generate_series)
4480
4481    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4482        exprs = expression.expressions
4483        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4484            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4485        else:
4486            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4487
4488        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4489
4490    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4491        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4492            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4493
4494        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4495        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4496        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4497
4498        if source_tz and timestamp:
4499            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4500                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4501            )
4502
4503        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4504
4505        return self.sql(expr)
4506
4507    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4508        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4509        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4510
4511        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4512
4513        if _with is None:
4514            with_sql = ""
4515        elif not _with:
4516            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4517        else:
4518            with_sql = " WITH"
4519
4520        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4521
4522        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4523
4524    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4525        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4526            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4527
4528        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4529        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4530        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4531
4532        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4533        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4534
4535        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4536
4537    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4538        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4539        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4540        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4541        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4542        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4543
4544    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4545        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4546        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4547        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4548        return res
4549
4550    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4551        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4552        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4553        empty = (
4554            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4555            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4556            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4557        )
4558
4559        error = expression.args.get("error")
4560        error = (
4561            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4562            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4563            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4564        )
4565
4566        if error and empty:
4567            error = (
4568                f"{empty} {error}"
4569                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4570                else f"{error} {empty}"
4571            )
4572            empty = ""
4573
4574        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4575
4576        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4577
4578    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4579        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4581
4582    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4584        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4585
4586        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4587        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4588
4589        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4590        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4591
4592        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4593
4594        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4595
4596    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4597        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4598
4599        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4600        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4601        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4602            parent = expression.parent
4603            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4604                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4605                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4606            else:
4607                this = expression.this
4608                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4609                if this.find(exp.Column):
4610                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4611                    this_sql = (
4612                        self.expressions(this)
4613                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4614                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4615                    )
4616
4617                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4618
4619        return array_agg
4620
4621    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4623        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4624
4625        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4626
4627    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4628        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4629
4630        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4631        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4632
4633        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4634        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4635
4636        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4637
4638        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4639
4640        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4641
4642    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4644        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4645        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4646
4647        return f"{this}{columns}"
4648
4649    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4651
4652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4653        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4654
4655        return f"{kind}{this}"
4656
4657    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4658        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4659        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4660            func = f"*{func}"
4661
4662        return func
4663
4664    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4666        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4667        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4668        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4669        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4670
4671        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4672
4673    @unsupported_args("format")
4674    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4675        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4676
4677    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4678        this = expression.this
4679        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4680
4681        if zone:
4682            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4683            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4684            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4685            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4686                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4687            )
4688
4689        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4690
4691    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4692        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4693            return self.sql(
4694                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4695            )
4696
4697        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4698
4699    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4700        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4701        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4702        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4703        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4704
4705    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4706        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4707            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4708
4709        start_ts = exp.cast(
4710            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4711        )
4712
4713        return self.sql(
4714            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4715        )
4716
4717    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4718        dim = expression.expression
4719
4720        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4721        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4722            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4723                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4724            dim = None
4725
4726        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4727        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4728            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4729
4730        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4731
4732    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4734        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4735        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4736        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4737
4738        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4739
4740    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4742        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4743
4744        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4745
4746    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4748        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4749        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4750        return f"{this}{value}"
4751
4752    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4753        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4754        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4755            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4756
4757        return self.func(
4758            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4759            this_sql,
4760            expression.args.get("time"),
4761            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4762            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4763        )
4764
4765    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4766        return (
4767            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4768        )
4769
4770    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4771        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4772        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4773
4774        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4775        if properties:
4776            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4777
4778        return encode
4779
4780    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4782        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4783
4784        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4785        if column_def:
4786            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4787
4788        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4789        if alias:
4790            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4791
4792        return include
4793
4794    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4795        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4796        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4797
4798    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4799        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4800        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4801        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4802
4803    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4804        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4805    ) -> str:
4806        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4807        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4808
4809        every = expression.args["every"]
4810        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4811            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4812
4813        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4814
4815    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4816        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4817        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4818
4819        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4820
4821    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4822        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4823        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4824        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4825
4826    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4827        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4828        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4829        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4831        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4832        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4833        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4834        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4835
4836    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4838        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4839        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4840        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4841        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4842        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4843        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4844
4845    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4847        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4848        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4849
4850    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4851        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4852        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4853
4854    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4857        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4858        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4859        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4860
4861    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4862        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4863        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4864        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4865        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4867        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4868        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4869        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4870        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4871        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4872        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4873        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4874        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4875        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4876        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4877
4878    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4880        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4881        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4882        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4883        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4884        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4885        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4886        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4887        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4888
4889    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4891        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4892
4893    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4895        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4896        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4897        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4898        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4899
4900    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4901        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4902
4903    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4904        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4905        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4906        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4907
4908        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4909        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4910            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4911
4912        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4913
4914    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4917        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4918        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4919        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4920
4921        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4922
4923        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4924
4925    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4926        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4927        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4928
4929    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4930        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4931
4932    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4933        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4934
4935    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4936        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4937
4938    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4939        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4940        return ""
4941
4942    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
4943        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
4944        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
4945        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
4946        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4947        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4949        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4950
4951        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
4952            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
4953        else:
4954            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
4955
4956    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
4957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4958        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4959        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
4960        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"